substantive knowledge (knowledge of the products of science, such as concepts, laws, theories and models): [footnote 48] this is referred to as scientific knowledge and conceptual understanding in the national curriculum Knowledge is sequenced to make the deep structure of the scientific disciplines explicit. This allows teachers and pupils to see how knowledge is connected. Table 1: Knowledge can be categorised according to its disciplinary nature and how it is used by an individual These were introduced in 2010 to monitor standards over time after the removal of key stage 2 science national curriculum tests (SATs). The first year a matrix sampling approach was used was 2014. Direct comparisons cannot be made between results from this sampling approach and previous key stage 2 science SATs results. ↩

Recent findings from TIMSS 2019 show that England’s performance in science at Year 9 has decreased significantly compared with 2015, albeit remaining well above the TIMSS average. [footnote 32] England’s performance is now significantly lower than in any previous TIMSS cycle. This contrasts with the trend in mathematics achievement, which has seen an increase in the performance of Year 9 pupils over the last 24 years. Of particular concern is the widening gap between the highest- and lowest-performing Year 9 pupils in science. Indeed, the proportion of pupils performing below the lowest TIMSS science benchmark has doubled since 2015.Knowledge of methods that scientists use to answer questions. This covers the diverse methods that scientists use to generate knowledge, [footnote 64] not just fair testing, which is often over emphasised in science classrooms and curriculums. [footnote 65] For example, use of models, chemical synthesis, classification, description and the identification of correlations (pattern-seeking) have played important roles, alongside experimentation, in establishing scientific knowledge. [footnote 66] Once disciplinary knowledge is introduced, it should be practised in different topics and disciplines. This allows pupils to learn how the same disciplinary knowledge is used in different substantive contexts. [footnote 103] For example, knowledge of the concept ‘variable’ can be used alongside substantive knowledge when pupils draw graphs to reveal scientific laws such as Hooke’s Law, or when planning an experiment to investigate how light affects the rate of photosynthesis. In this way, disciplinary knowledge is not forgotten but is built on. Coherence between mathematics and science As well as seeking coherence within and between the scientific disciplines, pupils need to make relevant connections between knowledge from other subject disciplines, for example between mathematics and physics.

Scientific processes such as observation, classification or identifying variables are always taught in relation to specific substantive knowledge. They are not seen as generalisable skills.At the same time, there are indications that teacher-assessed grades at key stage 2 are over-inflating pupils’ achievement in science. In 2018, just 21.2% of Year 6 pupils were estimated to be performing at the expected standard in science according to national sample assessments. [footnote 220] This contrasts with 82% of pupils according to teachers’ assessments. [footnote 221] This discrepancy may be because some schools do not give enough time or training for moderation, which are both necessary to ensure that teachers’ judgements are valid and reliable. [footnote 222] It may also be due to the different methods used. For example, teacher assessment in primary schools is frequently based on classroom work, whereas national science sampling tests measure pupils’ ability to remember and apply substantive and disciplinary knowledge. This review has explored a range of evidence relating to high-quality science education. It has drawn on research from many different countries and organisations. It also builds from the same research base that underpins the EIF. Any attempt to capture the national context for science education needs to recognise that schools face a number of challenges in recruiting and retaining specialist science teachers. Despite its importance, science teachers often have insufficient content knowledge. This includes ‘specialist’ teachers with degrees in their subject who still need to learn ‘school science’, as well as how to teach it. [footnote 227] Weak content knowledge is not only a barrier to clear explanations, it is also a source of pupils’ misconceptions in science because teachers may also hold these same unscientific ideas. [footnote 228] One study, for example, reveals that many primary school teachers have the same scientific misconceptions as their pupils. [footnote 229] The majority of primary teachers in this study thought gravity increased as objects increase their height above the ground. A third believed all metals were magnetic.

First, because expertise comes from domain-specific knowledge and not generic skills, [footnote 42] pupils need to develop an extensive and connected knowledge base. When pupils learn new knowledge, it should become integrated with the knowledge they already have. This ensures that learning is meaningful. [footnote 43] In science, pupils need their knowledge to be organised around the most important scientific concepts, which predict and explain the largest number of phenomena. [footnote 44] An ambitious curriculum therefore needs to identify the most important concepts for pupils to learn. It must also teach pupils how these concepts are related so that, over time, the logical structure of each scientific discipline is made explicit. [footnote 45] For example, pupils studying biology should learn how the theory of evolution provides a central structure to organise and connect many other concepts such as variation, adaptation and natural selection. Formative assessment can also be used to find out whether pupils retain and use specific misconceptions. Distractor-driven assessment tools can be especially helpful, such as multiple-choice questions that present pupils with both the scientific conception and misconception. [footnote 205] This is because misconceptions are not always identified in questions that assess general science content. [footnote 206] Evidence suggests that multiple assessment probes should be used, over extended periods of time and contexts, when making claims about learning. [footnote 207] This is because pupils regularly show variability in which conceptions they use when first learning a scientific concept.

A useful framework for constructing science curriculums makes the distinction between the following: Some substantive concepts are more difficult to learn because the scientific knowledge conflicts with everyday knowledge. [footnote 114] Often, these concepts are from subject areas rich with sensory experiences that pupils encounter outside of the classroom. For example, Newtonian mechanics and heat and temperature are concepts where, despite careful instruction, pupils frequently maintain their misconceptions. For example, many pupils (and adults) think that objects require a force to keep moving or that insulating cold items will warm them up. [footnote 115] Substantive knowledge is sequenced so that pupils build their knowledge of important concepts such as photosynthesis, magnetism and substance throughout their time at school. Science has been designated a core subject of the national curriculum, alongside mathematics and English, since the Education Reform Act of 1988. As such, a science education forms an important entitlement for all young people. [footnote 3] National curriculum in England: science programmes of study’, Department for Education, September 2013.

Practical procedures, such as using microscopes or heating apparatus, should also be practised regularly so that pupils do not forget what they have learned. Reading, writing, talking and representing science Science education also provides the foundation for a range of diverse and valuable careers that are crucial for economic, environmental and social development. [footnote 9] National context Primary and the early years foundation stage L Archer, J DeWitt, J Osborne, J Dillon, B Wong and B Willis, ‘ASPIRES report: young people’s science and career aspirations, age 10–14� recognise the power and limitations of science and consider associated personal, social, economic and environmental implications. This includes making decisions based on scientific evidence and learning about socio-scientific issues With the enormous potential for misconceptions across the curriculum in science, there are a number of approaches we should adopt around science misconceptions in our day-to-day teaching:

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A high-quality science curriculum not only identifies the important concepts and procedures for pupils to learn, it also plans for how pupils will build knowledge of these over time. This starts in the early years. Research shows that high-quality science curriculums are coherent. This means the curriculums are organised so that pupils’ knowledge of concepts develops from component knowledge that is sequenced according to the logical structure of the scientific disciplines. In this way, pupils learn how knowledge connects in science as they ‘see’ its underlying conceptual structure. Importantly, this sequencing pays careful attention to how to pair substantive with disciplinary knowledge, so that disciplinary knowledge is always learned within the most appropriate substantive contexts. Sequencing substantive knowledge Another study found that pupils who watched teachers’ demonstrations outperformed those who watched video and reading interventions. [footnote 156] The authors suggest this effect was partly due to the high-quality questioning that took place. In our overview of research underpinning the education inspection framework (EIF), we identified teaching as the single most important factor in schools’ effectiveness. Teacher effectiveness is particularly important in science given the abstract and counterintuitive nature of many of the ideas being learned. Research highlights the importance of teacher explanations in science that build from what pupils already know. These explicitly focus pupils’ attention on the content being learned. This often involves the use of teaching models and analogies to represent abstract concepts in a concrete way. Evidence shows that unguided ‘discovery’ approaches are not effective. Instead, pupils learning science benefit from systematic teaching approaches that carefully scaffold their learning. Because research shows a strong positive relationship between reading achievement and science achievement generally, schools that prioritise pupils’ reading will likely help pupils to learn science and vice versa. Teacher-directed instruction Careful timetabling plays a significant role in reducing science teachers’ workload and developing expertise. This is because many science teachers are routinely teaching outside of their specialism. Allocating a higher proportion of a teacher’s timetable to their subject specialism can reduce their workload and increase opportunities to develop their subject expertise. Workload can also be reduced, especially during the early stages of a teaching career, by assigning teachers specific key stages or reducing the number of year groups they teach. [footnote 248] Acquiring disciplinary knowledge is an important goal of the national curriculum. [footnote 59] This goes beyond simply doing practical work or collecting data. [footnote 60] It includes learning about the concepts and procedures that scientists use to develop scientific explanations which, in turn, have implications for the status and nature of the scientific knowledge produced. [footnote 61]